作者:D. 摩凯恩 发布时间:2007-12-22 来源:文化研究 点击:
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近年来,在“约”的框架内探讨工商与职业伦理在美国已成为相当普遍之事了。约之话语不再仅限于新教徒在宗教改革传统范围内的使用 。美国天主教的主教鼓励教徒们在约的意义上考虑经济生活。 至少已有一位有影响的工商伦理学家,劳拉·娜什,已发展了其“约的工商伦理”的构想,但她并未发展其中圣经的或神学的预设。 在美国的工商与职业伦理方面约之话语的应用标志着一种道德严肃感的提升。那些将他们伦理的反省置于约的框架之内的人倾向于怀疑工商与职业伦理能完全由诸如商务合同中的明确规条的法律责任所穷尽,或是由某种基于理性私利基础之上的社会契约所穷尽。约之话语提示一种开放的承诺,超越以上两种契约性义务,在所有工商与职业关系中对社会正义进行更全面的关怀。
约之话语的开放性不可避免地唤起了灵性关怀。在由基督新教传统所塑造的美国公众文化中,约之话语必然与圣经的灵性与道德训示共鸣,并且为我们的公共企业带来基督教会的社会实践所提供的资源,正如它们在西方文明历史中已经展现出的那样。当然,在中国,其它的灵性传统也能而且必定有助于工商伦理与职业伦理的发展。但如果美国学者打算在此做出有益的贡献的话,那么就应当帮助中国学者对西方文明中的灵性维度作出更有意义的探索。在西方文明中,工商与行业以真正促进共同善的方式达到繁荣。
下面我试着提供一个美国天主教对这一约的论题的西方传统的考察。这么做并非为了提高天主教教义的地位,而是旨在协助中国学者与美国新教改革传统的学者之间的对话。仅就揭示对于约之话语中所隐含的社会的与政治的含义有着不同的理解这一点而言,一种天主教的视角也是有用的。天主教的视角可起到一个提醒者的作用。原则上人人都会同意,约之话语倾向于提升民主和人权,但它自身并不对民主与人权及其如何在不同历史和文化的国家中制度化作出任何单一化的解释。天主教与新教在约上的视角可能在一些方面有交叠之处,而在另外一些方面有分歧,因为约之话语的天主教解释趋于在前现代和改革之前的基督教社会汲取更深厚的资源。天主教教义与现代化的关系是不同于新教方面的。 人们可以注意到天主教教义面对现代化压力——这通常被视为异化的和敌意的——所做的维护自身灵性传统和社会实践的抗争。所以,对认真对待现代化的矛盾情感的人来说,天主教的观点似乎更为意趣相投。天主教的灵性精神,尤其经过培植了数百年的西方修道制度的传统精神,可以光大对于工商和职业道德不可或缺的约的可能性。我在下面的评述中希望向读者展现这一特殊领域。
我们以下述方式来展开论述。首先,我将简要勾勒一下约之团契的社会形式的历史,这些形式是在改宗前的基督教中发展的,尤其是在西方修道制度的历史中更为突出;而且,我将对于这种约的社会形式如何推进前现代西方社会发展提供一些观察。其次,我将试图概述我所认为的在约的视角下发展工商和职业道德的持久意义。最后,我将对这些资源如何可能贡献于今日的中国作一简要的评论。
在历史上,约的社会形式渊源于新约中教会的发展。“教会church”一词在希腊语中原为“ekklesia”,字面上意为“被召集者”。“church”是信徒的一种团契(或自愿的联合),他们从社会这一更大的共同体中被召集过来,通过其信仰和行动成为上帝的见证。更大的社会首先是犹太教的集会,耶稣的门徒正是从这个社会中退出或被逐出。但这一名词业已暗含了这个团体作为不遵国教之派别身份,即由于拒绝膜拜罗马皇帝的“神灵”而受到迫害的团体。“church”的约之特性在其强烈感觉到作为上帝与以色列人的约之应许的真正继承者,也即,“church”自视为“新的以色列”,正如耶稣传道中所说,是犹太教经典所预言的最先进入上帝之国的得救者。而作为以色列约之传统的主张者,正如在新约中所记载的,教会苦于有关摩西诫命是否应扩展及于非犹太的皈依者的问题,诸如保罗之类的人,通常立足于约之新的观念的基础上,反对强迫接受旧的律法。这一新观念将约理解为包容性的团契,不再承认以往的约的基于种族、阶级或性别的社会性区分。
然而,在实践中,教会发现始终按照这种约的视角的社会含义进行思考或生活是困难的,如果不是不可能的话。那些用以描述教会的隐喻可能加剧了这一混乱,其中之一是新约中的语词——“信仰的大家庭(household [oikos] of the faith)”,强调基督徒与其他的家庭也有相通之处,他们组成为一个扩展的“家庭”。然而基督徒区别于家庭之处在于他们是信仰的团契——通过洗礼的仪式认可,而非通过血族关系。家庭的隐喻确乎使约中原来暗含的社会激进倾向变得温和,比如说,在保罗书信的后面几封里,我们发现一种基督教对于罗马家庭伦理的适应,在调整的同时肯定了丈夫对妻子,父母对孩子,主人对奴隶的权威。(以弗所书5:20 – 6:9)。简言之,“信仰的大家庭”依然是一个家庭,人类关系的“自然”序列(ordering) 甚至在约之团契内也依然可见,。
通过考虑教会的内在组织的发展,或许可以找到圣经的约的社会含义的另一个角度。以新约为基点的教会组织形式是多样的,只是在公元3世纪和4世纪期间,单一的范式才随着神甫制的出现而凸显出来,特别是长老(presbyteroi)、社会工作人员和管理者的出现。新约,尤其是保罗书信和使徒行传,宣称地方教会由他们的创立者进行宽松地协调。无论如何,保罗切望保证他的教会承认耶路撒冷教会的权威,而耶路撒冷教会是由 “主的兄弟” 雅各引领的。《罗马书》提到保罗集资前往耶路撒冷教会以帮助教会关照的穷人,并且将这样的集资视为一种在约之团契的联合中必须达到的伙伴关系的纽带(罗马书 15: 25-27)。
在罗马帝国的教会中,作为首要权威的所谓“君主制”主教的出现,是约观念适应当时社会现实之方法的又一范例。虽然主教最初只是一个经营团契的物资管理者,但不久所有的领导功能便都经由神甫制集中到他一人身上。主教被视作使徒所创设的基督团契中的一切东西的继承者。主教像君主统治宫廷般地统辖各种形式的使团与教士,包括在其辖区内的长老与执事。随着罗马帝国一步步变成基督教国 ,主教在公民事务方面也成代言人,尤其是随着君斯坦丁大帝(312年)的皈依,更代表了理事会与宗教会议中的团契——这些团契为帝国中所有教会审慎商讨教义与纪律。后来,在所谓“野蛮人入侵”之后,这个短命的西罗马帝国在拉丁西部崩溃。这样,主教在帝王缺席的情况之下成为所有幸存的文明秩序的保护者。
西方基督教帝国的崩溃造成的重要趋势是罗马教皇的出现,他的权威远胜于其他主教。教皇的历史是一部斗争史,是神学、政治和社会各种利害的角逐暗昧的混杂,其结果是不可预知。天主教徒在这个发展中看到的是神意的明晰,新教徒却只看到历史的模棱两可。天主教徒相信其教会秩序的形成直接由耶稣基督托管,并且是新约观念的一部分,尤其在耶稣对彼得的应许中(太16:18-19; 约21:15-19)。天主教徒相信教皇是使徒之首彼得的承继者,使徒团体则由同教皇保持交通的主教团体继承。据信,教皇之所以驻在罗马,是因为圣彼得是在罗马被处决的(保罗亦如此)。因此,在西罗马的基督教中,城市的领导权不是建立在政治的权宜之计上的,而是建立在被葬殉道者的血之上。新教徒一般承认天主教所主张的彼得在十二使徒中的领导地位,但倾向于否认圣彼得的牧职和教皇统治权有任何严格关联,否认它有约的重要性。
在争取实现符合新约中的约观念的教会秩序中,出现了西方修道制度。这是教会内部的广泛的改革运动, 是在君士坦丁大帝颁布宽容敕令(313 年)、形式上终止逼害教会之后,追寻耶稣之路的一个具有吸引力的可能。修道制度可以定义为建立在贫穷、忠诚和顺从(天主教的“福音忠告”)的三重誓言之上的一种自愿联盟的形式,目的在于更加完美第和更少被干扰地效仿基督。
虽然西方的修道制度和佛教与道教中发展的灵性团体的形式有着神秘的相似之处,但是“殉道者”和“修士”的不同在基督教中是值得注意的。“殉道者”一词来自希腊词“martyrein,”意为“见证”,其假定是基督的见证人将被迫害处死,正如耶稣之在十字架上殉难。相比之下,“修士”一词来自希腊的“monachos,”,意为“孤独”或单独一人。起初,修士是隐士,或多或少独居在乡间,以使他们的生活遵循耶稣的生活。居住在远离城市的“沙漠”或不毛之地,当然有助于将修道制度和约的圣经传统联系起来。摩西曾前往沙漠领受上帝的指示。而后,在拥有“应许之地”之前,他和上帝选民在沙漠里逗留了40年。施洗者约翰也是在旷野中宣告耶稣的来临的。而不久,耶稣在受约翰的洗礼之后,在沙漠禁食40天后才开始他自己的使命——履行约的应许(太 3: 1-5)。为圣经上的这些榜样所感召,隐士到乡村里去发现耶稣之道,这使他们与所有新近的皈依者区别开来——后者的献身被视为肤浅的和为了自身。
进而言之,这些隐士给教会带来了问题,因为这些僧侣趋于表达一种自我立法的灵性权威,它独立于由主教管理的神甫制。大量的隐士还能给教会和基督国带来政治问题,因为他们能够而且经常扰乱主教们指导教会的事务理事会和宗教会议。然而,对我们来说,更重要的是考虑修道生活如何被重组以使其改革精神用于树立一种基督教的文明,而不是使之瓦解。这种变化在于从无政府的修道制度(隐士的)到公共的修道制度(修院的)转向。这个转向最先由希腊东罗马帝国的圣徒巴西尔完成。在西方是圣本尼迪克,公元6世纪的一个意大利贵族,完善了修道院规章(540年),它成为后来西方所有修道院改制的范本。
就我们对工商和职业道德的关注而言,理解本尼迪克的“信仰之家”这一新模式不无裨益。本尼迪克的箴言是“Ora et Labora”: “报酬和工作”。大多数非西方的修道传统,比如小乘佛教,在仪式祈求中发现了深刻的灵性意义,而本尼迪克式的修士则在工作中发现灵性意义。简言之,工作是团契之灵性诫律的内在组成,是了解谦卑思想乃是耶稣之道的核心的一个契机,工作,正如团体的其他方面,是高度组织化和可共同理解的。本尼迪克的规章的确禁止私人物品和生产工具的个人所有权,虽然僧侣可以在与团体目的一致的情况下(按照信仰之家的“父亲”即修院院长的阐释)使用它们。通常,男女各自隔离的修道院从事如下的事务,如为旅游者提供招待,为信徒提供教育,包括古希腊和基督教文学遗产的保护和传播(在“黑暗时期”间),以及生产物质财富以维持适中的禁欲生活。修道院通常座落在偏远的不毛之地,然而通过僧侣及其辅助人员的有组织的劳作,这些地方很快变得肥沃。
院长和修士很快意识到剩余产品是一种财富,一种原始的但无意中形成的资本积累,而这是成问题的。积累的财富以及由此带来的对团契的适中的禁欲生活方式的原初热情的威胁,持续不断地激发了后来的改革运动,——这些运动企图返回约之生活的修道观下的原初的纯净和简单。
追溯起来,修道院的令人尴尬的财富,是修道院的天主教工作伦理与后来的“新教工作伦理”相区别的一个重要标志。在理论上,天主教和新教的工作伦理二者都增进了诸如刻苦、勤勉、节俭、守时、诚心及自律等品德,简言之,两者在适中的禁欲主义的框架下都积极地走向做工,但是,诚如马克思·韦伯指出的,新教工作伦理是一种“此世的禁欲主义”的形式,而修道院的天主教式工作伦理则不然。本尼迪克将工作视为传授“像基督一样的”谦卑,所以还是“彼岸性”的。培养一种基督般的谦卑,涉及到在日常劳作中甘受十字架的考验,这种考验使我们得到天国的永恒报酬而非尘世的认可。相反,在新教伦理中,世俗的成功很少被看作是令人困窘之物,而恰恰是忠实地回应上帝拯救的恩赐——通过耶稣基督——的可预见结果。简言之,世俗的成功是“神圣拣选”的迹象,不是经由魔力或奇迹,而是以符合个人信仰之承诺的方式自律地有序生活的可预见结果。
关于天主教和新教工作伦理比照中内含的全部意蕴,还可以进一步讨论,但是可以肯定的是,成功,也即以物质资源的纯利润的形式出现的财富的产生,并不是遵守圣本尼克规章的意图或期待的结果。尽管如此,修道院的经济生产率及其在欧洲封建时期动荡不安的社会中提供庇护所的传统功能,还是促使虔诚的天主教徒向修道院捐献了更多财物。这些累积的财富后来诱使一些新教改革者,如英国的亨利八世,剥夺修道院的财产以投资于国家建设。显然,如果确信修道院窝藏了种种腐败,而且如果这些财富能够真正造福于整个社会,剥夺这些财富也就有其必要,他们也就能够出于良心地这样做。尽管在修道院制度的问题上聚讼不休,天主教的社会理论家,比如Michael Novak,还是倾向于将之视为西方现代工商企业的发展的一个契机。
在这个方向上的下一步,体现于社会组织的约的形式的措施是中世纪的行会。修道院是一个皇家机构,而行会则主要是市民的,它是中世纪盛期城镇生活复兴的另一标识。行会是熟练生产者的组织,比如工匠以及其他提供专业服务的人,其目的在于提高他们的共同利益,包括对灵性形成的关注。行会将修道制度的基本原则(致力于公益工作和商会工作)与适合中世纪城镇平信徒的灵性和生活方式结合起来。在其他事情上,行会起着保护性联盟的作用,它们为其成员的服务包括设定价格,担保它们的技术,调整他们的活动,这在理论上是为了追求共同善,而实际上也追求自己群体的善,因此,行会预示了西方工会的许多特征。
在宗教改革之前,与约的基督教相关的广泛运动充满多样化与革新,体现在修道院运动中的改革推动力回应历史发展,开始从所谓“黑暗时代”复苏,城市生活复兴,组织化的工商和体制化政府更新,教育和科学的稳步发展,学术系统化,艺术普遍繁荣。天主教约之团契的不同形式或多或少地受到修道制度的激励,这些形式由于时间和背景、创设者为基督徒的灵性与道德重建设计的特别规划、以及其内在组织的变革而形成不同特性。比如出现在12世纪的圣芳济修会和多米尼克会,因其以仪式化的乞讨方式存活而被称作托钵僧团。他们坚持修道的约束,仿效基督遵奉清贫、忠诚和谦卑的誓言。与此同时,他们集中精力提高学识,而且很快在刚从教会学校中发展起来的城市“大学”中颇具影响。
在这些年代(150—1550年代)的大部分时期,或许直到15 世纪,这些运动仍然在中世纪的基督教中保持着创造性的因素。最后,由马丁·路德,加尔文和Loyola的伊格那修发起的更为激进的基督教改宗运动遮蔽它的光环。修道制度衰微的原因是复杂的,并非由于大量的腐败或僧侣背叛誓约,而更多应归咎于更有效的教会(教皇)核心管理部门的兴起,——这个管理部门成功地控制了宗教改革。得到改革的许可是耗费时日与令人沮丧的,这并非是由于修道院的缘故,而是因为教会的核心部门系统化地滥用职权。
在我看来,新教改革与受天主教的修道制度激励的运动一样,体现了对约的社会改革的同样深切的责任。而他们的区别在于,天主教的修道制度从来不能超越其与大家庭式帝国主义的希腊-罗马传统的关系。它可以针锋相对,但很少能克服所继承的教皇权威与帝国政府的家长制形式,这种形式甚至在君士坦丁皈依之前就已被主教教会接受。天主教的修道制度激励了献身于宗教改革的志愿联盟,但它只能存在于罗马体制内。这一体制尤其要求神职人员和信徒的严格的功能化分离,只有神职人员即僧侣、修女与教士才能在对基督的完美仿效中生活。新教改革对新约中“所有信仰者的牧职身份”的复兴,首要目的是基督教灵性生活的彻底民主化。基督教意义上的“天职”,或上帝的召唤,再也不局限于神职人员。约再也不局限在诸如信徒的婚姻、基督教国家君主加冕的仪式、教会日趋增长的仪式化的神职委任以及修道团契的加入等方面。
天主教修道制度的工商伦理和职业伦理的重要意义不仅仅在历史谱系上。前文概要表明了西方的约的社会形式组织的历史贯穿了天主教的修道制度,事实上新教改革在连接约和基督教的工商等社会行动上也具有决定性意义。 最近天主教的(尤其在美国)的社会教义开始按照约的方式思考工商和职业伦理和社会责任。在天主教给教区教友的书信《对所有人的经济正义(Economic Justice for All)》(1986)中 ,明确指出工商公司的道德合法性,及其对社会正义、普遍的好及人的全面发展不可或缺的贡献;它还指出工商职业的社会责任,并试图勾勒一种工商组织内部动力的道德视角,并且为经理、雇员、公司的其他股东以及专业人员提供道德指向。在信中“所有者和消费者”的一节中(O’Brien and Shannon, 1992: 605-6),主教鼓励经营者和所有者以自己独特的基督徒天职为荣,并邀请他们加入为社会正义而斗争的联盟。
主教们对工商和职业的理解表现了对“天职”、“约”和“监管人”的职责意义的反思。当然,这些语词是宗教改革传统中的约之神学的主要支柱,但是在梵蒂冈第二次大公会议之后发展的天主教的社会教义在神学上与此类似。首先,在此蕴含着对创世纪的圣经解读和“监管人”的道德理想的回应:“工商和财政有义务成为它们所自由支配的资源的忠实受托人,没有人可以绝对拥有资源或不顾他人地控制它们的使用。(605)”受托人的职责,尤其在有关约的价值上,与监管人的职责同义。简单地说,对工商和财政监管人使命的认可,既可使资金的私人所有权合法化,又阐释了它的道德目的亦即普遍好。主教们在私人财产这一问题上所持的观点与天主教的社会教义一致,反映了教皇约翰·保罗二世在Laborem exercens (1981; O’Brien and Shannon, 1992: 350-392)中对于资本的社会性质的反思。
其次,美国主教们明白提到了圣经的天职理念,其中理想主义被道德的现实主义所节制,它对工商界人士面对的挑战深表同情:
商人、经理、投资者和金融业者在负责任地行动和寻求共同善时正是遵循了基督徒至关重要的“天职”,我们鼓励和支持工商团体中天职之更新了的意义。我们也认识到商人服务于社会的方式受到各类税收政策、信用有效性和其他公共政策的动机的统治和控制。
是什么使得这种天职对于基督徒是至关重要的,可以从遍布这封信的指向天职的大量例证中推断出来。在《对所有人的经济公正》中,天职首先是指平信徒的工作和事业,以及他们如何看待回应上帝对我们每一个人的呼召。在他们关于“创世、约和团契”的思考的最后,这些美国主教明确将他们的神学和新教的先行者联系起来。“我们也要学习新教传统中对平信徒的天职的强调,以及从全球基督教会的发展努力解决新出现问题的经济伦理。”这里,他们承认新教工作伦理的重要性并促使天主教工作伦理现代化,以更有效地致力于对此世的关注。激发美国主教宣言的普世精神是其所处的美国语境的一个产物。美国天主教的社会教义的特殊色彩来自于它与新教的持续的对话和的合作,结果便阐明了在企业中工作的宗教意义。
天主教的商人,像所有其他基督徒一样,同样应将他们的谋生视作上帝召唤他们的组成部分。但一个人的工作或事业的宗教意义并不能为有问题的工商实践撒上圣水。在承认工商的道德正当性的同时,也对它提出了伦理期待。工商管理之所以必须符合高标准,是因为它也是上帝的工作。然而主教们还是想将它描述得现实一点:他们知道生意仍然是生意,生意是通过便利市场交易以生产财富的一种社会活动。因此,它的道德标准必须与工商的性质一致。所以主教赋予工商界以不同寻常的经济权力:
工商界有权制定不损害企业积极行动的体制。政府必须制定激励企业保护环境、雇用残疾人及在萧条地区创造就业机会的调节措施和税收体系。经营者和股东不应将他们对公司的职责和对社会整体的职责割裂开来。(606)
根据天主教的社会训导的辅助原则 ,政府调节应当培养而不是妨碍所有者和经营者履行天职的潜能。“约”虽然在主教们对“所有者和经营者”的具体劝诫中没有被提到,但是是其“经济生活的基督教观念”的核心。正如“Economic Justice for All”指出的,约的圣经理想实现于十诫(出20:1-17) 和契约经文(出 20:22-23:33)的伟大律法要求中,它们提供了古代以色列社会秩序的根本。“约的具体条律保护人类的生命和财产,要求尊重父母、配偶和邻人的孩子,及特别关注团体的弱者:寡妇、穷人和外人。”(587)
美国的主教们把圣经的约对团契中弱势成员的关注转化成对公共政策改革的一种要求,即所谓“优先考虑穷人”,尤其是在政府的福利制度改革上。思考主教书信在这方面的陈述,在今天比当时更为重要。然而,问题是,对工商和职业的约的理解是否能与天主教的社会教义一致?
正如《所有人的经济公正》的第四章“一种美国的新经验:追求公共善的伙伴关系”谈及的,这种发展的社会背景已很好地立起来,在这里主教们赞同复杂的经济发展模式,即在工商和职业联盟范围内,在私人集团和当地政府之间,在当局、联邦和政府之间的层次上努力协调发展社会合作的潜能。这个问题要求在公司组织和经营上有革新和实验。它要求在生产过程和应负责任的结构上进行民主化的实验,以便各方进一步更加有效和人性化地参与。这相当于倡议经济“计划”的分权化模式 ,即在市场导向的经济内进行高度的体制协调。美国主教们诉诸天主教社会教义阐明他们对民主的资本主义制度的承诺。这种制度要求对经济和社会发展的必要的政府调节,以真正使人们达到 “对所有人的经济公正”。 美国主教们没说出但有所暗示的是,各阶层、美国政府的内部改革以及工商公司和专业联盟的重新组织需要“新美国经验”的运作,要求将所有企业重建为约的机构。协调的革新和分权化的计划必须包括我们公共生活的约观念的体制化,按照约的价值观以生活得更加一贯和更有意义。这一约的价值观被美国天主教徒接受,至于人们如何一贯地遵守约的理念,我们将拭目以待。
工商和职业中约的组织的最常见的例证依然见于改宗传统中的美国新教教徒。我的同事们已经讨论过其中的一些,我将不复赘言。我从以上对天主教的社会教义的反思中得出的结论是:在文化转型中,要使人们认真对待工商和职业中约之伦理的系统内涵,需要付出艰巨的努力,这是对宗教和道德教育的巨大挑战,而这在美国尚未引起基督教会包括天主教和新教的足够重视。然而,对于尝试将“中国马克思主义”发展成“具有中国特色的精神文明和物质文明”的中国学者而言,可能会对此感兴趣。我们在一起寻求通往真正人性的社会的正道时,天主教社会教义和中国马克思主义的传统文本都再度提供了中国与西方文明共同尊崇的前现代、现代和后现代的道德和社会价值的整合,这或许暗示了两者都具有富有成效的可资比较的观点、相互支持和引起共鸣的新精神。而且,两种范式都力图使自己区别于世俗的自由主义,都与现代化的道德模糊性做斗争;两者都面临恢复道德智慧和社会智慧的前现代传统的挑战,而这对后现代的将来至关重要;最后,两者都向人类心灵最深的灵性渴望开放,并寻求更好地理解这种渴望,以使人们更有教养从而臻于圆满。
(高艳萍 译)
BIBLICAL COVENANTS IN BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS:
A CATHOLIC PERSPECTIVE
Dennis P. McCann
In what follows I intend to offer a Catholic perspective on this common Western legacy of covenantal discourse. I do so not in order to promote Catholicism as such, but in order to assist the dialogue between Chinese scholars and scholars representing the mainstream of the Reformed tradition in the USA. A Catholic perspective may be useful to Chinese scholars if only to show that there are diverse ways of interpreting the social and political implications of covenantal discourse. A Catholic perspective may serve as a reminder that covenantal discourse defines an arena for the exploration of meaningful disagreement as well as overarching consensus. Covenantal discourse, everyone may agree in principle, tends to promote democracy and human rights, but it does not in and of itself warrant any single interpretation of what democracy and human rights are, or how these should be institutionalized in nations with diverse histories and cultures. Catholic and Protestant perspectives on the covenant may overlap on some issues and diverge on others, because a Catholic interpretation of covenantal discourse tends to draw more deeply on the social practices of premodern and preReformation Christianity, and view them more appreciatively. Catholicism’s relationship to modernization, in short, is different from that played out in the history of Reformed Protestantism. Informed by Catholicism’s struggle to maintain its own traditions of spirituality and social practice in the face of modernization pressures that often were perceived as alien and hostile, a Catholic perspective may seem more congenial to those who take seriously China’s own ambivalence about various forms of modernization. Catholic spirituality, particularly as cultivated over the centuries in the traditions of Western monasticism may help illuminate covenantal possibilities that remain indispensable for the development of business and professional ethics. That, at least, is the specific area that I hope to open up for you in the remarks that follow.
My paper proceeds in the following manner. First, I sketch a brief history of the social forms of covenantal community that developed within preReformation Christianity, with particular emphasis on the history of Western monasticism, and offer a few observations on how these covenantal social forms have contributed to premodern Western economic and social development. Second, I offer some remarks on what I take to be their ongoing relevance for the development of business and professional ethics in a covenantal perspective. Finally, I conclude with some very brief remarks on how these resources may make a contribution in China today.
The history of the covenantal social forms of Christianity begins in the New Testament with the church. Church or “Ekklesia” means “those called out,” i.e, a community (or voluntary association) of believers who have been called out from the larger society to be God’s witnesses through their faith and and action. The metaphors used to describe the church include the “Household (oikos) of the faith” which emphasizes both what Christians have in common with other households, i.e., they are organized as “families,” but also what distinguishes them from other households, i.e., they are communities of faith (as ratified through the rite of baptism), and not of kinship or blood. The forms of internal organization of the chuch generated by such metaphors are diverse even in the New Testament, and a single paradigm of church order only developed, if ever, during 3rd and 4th centuries, i.e., with the emergence of the ordained ministries, within the administrative authority of a bishop (episcopos).
Roman Catholics, nevertheless, believe that their own form of church order was directly mandated by Jesus Christ, and that it is warranted in the New Testament, specifically in Jesus’ promises to Simon Peter (Matthew 16:18, John 21:16). The Pope, in short, is the successor of Peter as head of the college of the Twelve Apostles, who are succeeded by the college of bishops remaining in communion with the Pope to this day. The Pope resides in Rome because Peter, it is claimed, was executed in Rome (as was Paul), and so the city’s leadership position in Western (Latin) Christianity is based not on political expediency but on the blood of the martyrs who are entombed there. Protestants generally acknowledge Catholic claims of Peter’s ministry of leadership over the Twelve Apostles, but tend to deny any strict linkage between Peter’s ministry and the Papal structure of church order.
Beyond the patterns of church order emerging from the New Testament, the next major development is the rise of monasticism. This is a very broad movement of Christian reform within the church, perennially attempting to call the church back to faithfulness to Christ. I will define monasticism in its typical Western (Latin) features as a form of voluntary association based on the three-fold vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience (referred to by Catholics as the “evangelical counsels”), that was meant to allow for a more perfect, less distracted following of the Way of Jesus, or imitation of His life. The original impulse for monasticism is the eventual decline of martyrdom and persecution in the early church. As State repression became less intense or at least intermittent, the vowed life involving separation from the ordinary routines of the world became a substitute for martyrdom. (“Martyr,” of course, means “witness,” and the assumption was that Christ’s true witnesses would be persecuted, just as Jesus was crucified.) Monasticism is from a Greek word, “monachos,” that means “solitary” or alone. Originally, the monks were hermits who lived more or less on their own, in order to make a more perfect imitation of Jesus in is own life. The movement from anarchic monasticism to communal monasticism (coenobitic, i.e., sharing a common table or coenobium) was first accomplished by St. Basil in the Greek eastern Roman Empire. The figure who perfected communal monasticism for the Latin West was St. Benedict of Nursia, who developed a monastic Rule that became the template for all subsequent monastic reform movements in the West.
Important for our purposes is to understand the role of work in Benedict’s new household of the faith. Benedict’s slogan was “Ora et Labora”: “Pray and Work.” Work was an intrinsic part of the spiritual discipline of the community, an opportunity to learn the lessons of humility thought to be essential to the Way of Jesus. The work, like every other aspect of the community, was highly organized and communally accountable. Benedict’s rule explicitly forbids private ownership of either personal possessions or the means of prodution, but both are available for use consisent with the community’s purposes as interpreted by the elected Abbot (“Father”) of the household. Typically, there were monasteries for men and women (separate communities), engaged in works like providing hospice and hospitality for travelers, educating the laity, including the preservation and transmission (during the so-called Dark Ages) of the literary heritage of Hellenistic and Christian antiquity, and the production of the means of existence in sufficient quantity and quality to support the community in its moderately ascetical life-style. Typically monasteries were in remote places, unproductive or uncleared lands that soon became very productive though the organized labors of the monks and their dependents. The surpluses thus produced soon came to be recognized as wealth, a primitive but unintended accumulation of capital that many monks found inappropriate and was the perennial inspiration for subsequent reform movements trying to return to the original purity and simplicity of the monastic evangelical life-style.
The embarrassment regarding accumulated wealth, in retrospect, is one major indication of the difference between the monastic Catholic work ethic and the later “Protestant work ethic.” The economic productivity of the monasteries, and their role as sanctuaries in the unstable and turbulent world of feudalism, prompted pious Catholics to donate their own wealth to them, and tempted some later reformers, e.g., Henry VIII of England, to strip the monasteries of their wealth in order to fund their own programs of nation building. Despite the controversies surrounding monasticism, some Catholic social theorists, e.g., Michael Novak, tend to regard it as an important template for business corporations as they eventually emerged in Western history
Another related covenantal form of social organization was the Medieval guild, which was an organization of skilled producers, e.g., those engaged in professional services or skilled trades, in which their common interests including spiritual concerns were recognized and protected. The guilds combined elements of monasticism (dedication to a common work or trade), with a spirituality and lifestyle more appropriate for lay Christians in Medieval towns and cities. Among other things the guilds functioned as protective associations, in that they set prices for the services of their members, and certified their skills, and regulated their activities, in theory for the sake of the common good, but in reality also for the sake of their own group interest.
Within the broad movement of preReformation monasticism (c. 550 –1550 CE), there was a great diversification of communal forms as the Christian impulse toward reform responded to the challenges of European development, initially with the recovery from the so-called Dark Ages, beginning approximately in the 9th century (Charlemagne). The trend is toward a recovery of urban life, renewal of organized commerce, orderly government, advances in education and science, systematization of learning, and a general flourishing of the arts. Broadly monastic communities can be distinguished by the time and circumstances of their founding, the founders’ specific agenda for Christian spiritual and moral reform, and the innovativeness of their communal organization. Throughout most of this period, until perhaps the 14th century, monasticism was the most creative element in Medieval Christianity. Eventually it lost out to more radical programs of Christian reform as in the Reformation. The reasons for the eclipse of monasticism are complex, but they are less likely to be a result of massive corruption, i.e., monks betraying their vows, than a result of the emergence of a more effective central administration in the Church (the Papacy) which successfully fought to control or, if you will, franchise, religiously motivated social reform. Getting the necessary permissions to innovate was time-consuming and frustrating, and increasingly vulnerable to corruption, not so much because of the monastic reformers, but because of the systematic abuse of power in the Church’s central government.
The Protestant Reformation, in my view, embodies the same deep commitment to evangelically based communal and social reform as did Catholic monasticism. Where they differ is that Catholic monasticism never was able to overcome its complicity in the heritage of Greco-Roman familistic imperialism. It was rarely able to challenge the inherited forms of authority and governance but instead worked to establish voluntary associations dedicated to reform as defined and regulated within the inherited social system. Among other things, this system favored a strict functional separation of “clergy” and “laity,” with the expectation that only the “clergy,” i.e., the monks and other ordained ministers, could be expected to live in perfect imitation of Christ. The Reformation’s restoration of “the priesthood of all believers” is first of all a radical democratization of the Christian spiritual life. “Vocation” is no longer restricted to questions of becoming a monk, or a nun, or a priest. “Covenant” is no longer restricted to marriage for the laity, consecration for the Christian prince, and ordination to the church’s increasingly ritualized ministry.
Max Stackhouse has rightly observed that “sacramentum” is an appropriate Latin translation of “diatheke” or covenant. But sacramentum, as mutual pledge, eventually came to be restricted in Medieval Catholic usage to the seven liturgical rites, by which the pledge of salvation or God’s grace is enacted in the stages and rhythms of the Christian’s personal life: “baptism, confirmation, holy orders, eucharist, penance, extreme unction, and matrimony.” After Vatican II (1962-1965), however, Catholicism underwent a massive internal reform, involving among other things, a breathtaking reappropriation of the Bible and the reconstruction of Biblically oriented theologies and programs for social action. The National Conference of Catholic Bishops in the USA issued a pastoral letter to address: “Economic Justice for All: Catholic Social Teaching and the US Economy” (1986), which embraces a covenantal theology regard the meaning of all human work, and the direction of Christian social action, that is consistent with the broad lines of ecumenical Protestant social thought and practice. It should be studied carefully for some indication of what is actually possible by way of a Christian agenda for social reform, even in an advanced industrial society, even within an overall regime of “democratic capitalism,” where the Roman Catholic church fully embraces separation of church and state, and seeks to influence the processes of social transformation through the rhetoric of persuasion and the organization of voluntary associations.